Food Loss and Waste (FLW) occurs across various stages of the food supply chain. The overall annual food wastage figures are made up of unique cases that can be traced back to neglect, counterproductive practices, and unqualified decisions across the post-harvest journey. Here are some examples of FLW at varying stages of the food supply chain.

During Production Stage

Food Loss (FL) occurs when appropriate access to

  • Harvesting equipment

  • Pesticides and Fertilisers

  • Farmer training courses and Research

  • Financial, and Meteorological Institutions

is shown to be either difficult or non-existent.

Harvesting methods, whether they be mechanical or manual and timing are two important factors causing FL in this stage. Because of low mechanisation rate and insufficient labour force, food loss occurs due to delayed harvesting in the harvest season. Sometimes harvesting time is delayed due to economic reasons. Producers prefer to leave the crop without harvesting if, at that moment, demand is low and returns to harvest cannot cover the cost of harvest and transportation. In addition, poor harvesting methods and equipment with poor performance can lead to food loss. Farmers often overproduce in order to protect against pest attacks, weather, and market uncertainties, and to guarantee the contractual obligation with the buyers. Oversupply decreases the market price and leads to more crops left unharvested. Some products are not harvested or thrown out directly after harvest because they failed to meet quality standards, such as shape, size, colour, and weight, required by processors or target markets. Poor nutrient and water management contribute to a lower quality of production, resulting in high FL during the grading process.

In the case of fruits and vegetables, product quality at the production stage heavily depends on agronomic practices, diseases, and education. Poor practices can result in high FL. Pre-harvest pest infestation is one of the major factors causing post-harvest FL for fruits and vegetables, as some of the infestations begin to appear after harvesting.

During Handling and Storage Stage

In this stage, the occurrence of FL varies depending on the type of fresh produce product. Generally speaking though, Fruit and Vegetable products experience losses due to degradation and spillage in loading and unloading, transportation (from farm to distribution), and storage.

FL during handling and storage stages accounts for the largest portion of the total FLW. Due to the poor transportation infrastructure and improper transportation vehicles, fresh produce can easily perish in hot weather due to the absence of infrastructure for transportation and improper vehicles. The FL level in transportation can be relatively low with good road infrastructure, facilities in the fields, and proper loading and unloading facilities. Therefore, better transportation infrastructure and loading facilities could potentially reduce FL. Timely transportation from warehouse to retail through accurate forecasting of demand is also important for reducing food loss. If accurate timing is not achieved, the food must be stored on the retail shelf for too long, which leads to food waste (FW) by reducing the quality of the food or expiration of the consumption period.

Proper cold storage facilities help manage the time constraint, extending marketing and consumption time so that FL can be reduced. With the absence of storage infrastructure and inaccessibility to or non-existence of cold storage facilities, highly perishable products are often discarded generating FL. Good storage conditions, which can properly control light, moisture, oxygen level, sanitation, and temperature, help reduce FL of fresh produce products.

During Processing and Packaging Stage

There are some unavoidable losses that occur in the processing stage for some products, however, the occurrence of FL at the processing and packaging stages is mostly due to technical inefficiencies and malfunctions. Errors in processing lead to defects in the final product, such as incorrect shape, size, weight, or packaging damage. Sometimes these kinds of defects do not seriously affect the safety and quality of the final product, although they will be discarded in accordance with established safety and quality standards.

Insufficient processing line capacity and inefficient processing methods can also lead to FL. Failure to accurately predict demand can result in food loss if too much raw material is purchased and stored for food processing. The contamination in a processing line that occurs due to improperly cleaned processing units not sanitised from previous processes is also one of the main causes of FL occurrence. Proper process management to guarantee food quality and safety based on published standards can be a key factor in reducing FL. Proper packaging also can play a significant role in extending the shelf life of food products and reducing FL. At this stage, considerable FL is produced due to legislation restrictions on the appearance of fruits and vegetables. FL also occurs during cleaning, inspection, processing, and packaging processes, and in conforming to food safety standards.

During the Distribution and Marketing Stage

This stage includes the activity of transporting fresh produce from one place (farm, facility, storage, etc.) to another. Additionally, this stage includes the set of market activities (retail or wholesale) that allow consumers access to food.

To avoid Food Waste (FW) in distribution activities, it is important to use appropriate conveyance conditions, e.g., temperature-controlled aircrafts and ships, which move vegetables and fruits between continents.

In most developing countries, food loss is caused by transport through poorly maintained roads. For example, fruit is often wasted because of bruises and bumps due to road conditions. In rainy seasons, transportation of food using rural roads becomes demanding due to road blockages or landslides. However, during dry seasons, the likelihood of contamination increases due to dust. When moving duration and distance are longer than the ripening process, expiry dates are shortened. Therefore, the likelihood of commercialisation declines and buyers refuse some part of the delivered food. Also, in traditional markets, sellers sprinkle unclean water on vegetables and fruits to decrease the shrivelling and wilting in hot weather under sunlight. This kind of technique, which aims to slow deterioration, could produce unsafe foods that are avoided by buyers and end up as landfill. These phenomena happen in developing countries due to transport congestion, vehicle failures, bad weather, and lack of capital and facilities.

In developed countries, there is a commonly self-imposed rule between food businesses—called the “rule of one-third”. According to this rule, food must be delivered to suppliers at one-third of their shelf time with the main intention of providing consumers with a broad choice of fresh products that are relatively far from their expiration date. However, if products are not delivered according to this rule, then many retailers refuse to buy them and return the orders, which results in the FW of safe foods. Consequently, edible products are sorted out due to quality, expired before being purchased, or being damaged or spilled in the market. In addition to the distribution stage, a similar situation occurs in the marketing stage. The owners of stores seek to manage various products displayed in large quantities and are regularly refilled to supply the shelves for consumer satisfaction. When retailers mix the same product with different expiry dates, sooner expiry dates are refused by the consumers because everyone prefers fresher products. Retailers sell fresh-cut vegetables and fruits and ready-made convenience foods to meet consumer demand. However, these kinds of foods mostly have a one-day shelf life. So, if all the displayed foods cannot be sold, then these foods must be discarded. Increases in fresh-cut products have been motivated by the consumer demand for fresh, convenient, and healthy foods that are nutritious and safe. However, perishing of the fresh-cut products is accelerated by poor temperature and packaging management. Even in developed countries with good packaging and temperature management conditions, the amount of fresh-cut products that are landfilled remains high.

Commercial pressure in the marketing stage is also a major cause of food waste. Promotional activities, such as “buy one and get one free”, which are conditional on increasing the purchase quantity, lead consumers to waste food by inducing them to purchase more food than necessary.

During Consumption Stage

Food Waste (FW) during this stage means the leftovers in a house, business place, or restaurant (cafeteria). Foods that are purchased and cooked but not consumed contribute to FW during this stage. Food waste in the consumption stage can be effectively reduced by future efforts. Four main criteria affect FW during this stage:

  • Household size and composition

  • Household income

  • Household culture

  • Household demographics

Household Size and Composition

Household (family) size and composition play a significant role in the generation of FW. Households with fewer residents may discard more because the foods prepared or purchased are commonly larger than the requirements of a smaller-sized household. Families with children are more likely to waste food than those without. For instance, larger families generate less FW per capita than smaller families, particularly single-person households. People that live alone generate more FW per capita than other households. Also reported that single-person households generate the most FW per capita.

In the house, FW can be generated more when enough or inadequate food is prepared. In some cases, people lack food preparation skills or the ability to reuse leftovers. Approximately 40% of household FW is due to the preparation of too much food. Over-provisioning could be both unintentional and intentional, as it is hard to decide how much to cook.

Household Income

As household income increases, diets transition toward the consumption of more food. Worldwide, consumption of convenience, energy, and protein-rich foods increases along with the westernisation of the Asian diet. Food diversification can lead to more FW, and a more repetitive diet can lead to less FW because it is possible to reuse ingredients from one meal for another meal, using staple ingredients that are included in almost every meal.

Households with higher incomes tend to waste more, as food is relatively cheaper than other goods. Especially in developed countries, the proportion of expenditure on food consumption is low in the total expenditure of households and is less sensitive to food waste during food consumption.

Household Demographics

Behaviours and attitudes examined in a study showed some correlation between FW and socio-demographic characteristics. Examining the demographic aspects (e.g., aging population) may lead to a better understanding of its relationship with FW. Although there is no clear conclusion about which socio-demographic aspects affect FW more, previous studies that examined the relationship between age and FW have shown that younger people waste more food than older people.

In Australia, as age increases, FW falls sharply; young people (18–24 years old) wasted more than $30 of fresh fruit within two weeks compared with older people (70 years old and older). In the United Kingdom, people aged 65 years and overproduce considerably less FW than the rest of the population.

In addition, there are studies that the degree of awareness of FW is related to the actual reduction of wastage.

Household Culture

Culture has a crucial role in dietary habits, as well as in generating FW. Each culture has its own habits as to which parts of food are considered edible and which parts are thrown away, therefore, FW depends on cultural attitudes and habits. For example, the United States and Australia have weak food traditions, which imply that there are fewer fundamental rituals and rules about what, when, and how to eat, and there are weak links between production, preparation, and consumption of foods. Therefore, the United States has an unhealthy diet, and the U.S. food culture places little value on food, leading to FW. However, French food culture is different. In France, food attitudes emphasise quality rather than quantity, so FW is relatively lower compared to the United States. Countries that have a deep food culture tend to be more resistant to diversity, due to the strong connection between production, preparation, and consumption. Cultures that have strong connections and place higher value on food produce less FW.

Events, such as weddings, parties, and religious ceremonies, also produce FW. For instance, during Ramadan (fasting ritual) in some Arabic countries, a significant portion of prepared meals is wasted. In Saudi Arabia, 30–50% of prepared foods are wasted. Similarly, 50% in the United Arab Emirates and 25% in Qatar are wasted during this time. The increase in FW during Ramadan is attributed to the arrangement of extravagant meals for which the food prepared exceeds the needs of the guests and families, with leftovers becoming FW.

Individual Attitude

The individual or household variation in the FLW can be determined by the individual’s knowledge, perceptions, and attitudes about FLW. Even if FLW is a major environmental issue that has attracted worldwide attention, it may not be a critical issue for a particular country or for a particular individual in a particular country. That is, an individual’s knowledge or attitude about the severity of the FLW problem can have a significant impact on the actual reduction, as well as the reduction intent of the FLW. The impact of attitudes and behaviours of individuals on FLW prevention could be limited, as attitudes are not entirely consistent with the actual behaviours (i.e., the attitude–behaviour gap). However, there are many studies that have found evidence on the positive relationship between attitude and actual behaviour on FLW reduction.

The intent to reduce or actual reduction of FLW is influenced by individual concerns about FLW. In other words, consumers who understand and are concerned about the severity of the FLW problem have lower FLW and the FLW reduction intention is also known to be larger.

FW is influenced by consumer planning and shopping routines, and that such consumer planning and shopping routines are determined by consumer moral attitudes and perceptions. Greek consumers are very careful in the fresh food shopping stage because they show a positive attitude toward FW prevention. Whether consumers think FW is an important issue or not has a statistically significant effect on the actual FW amount.

In light of these findings, national campaigns and education that help appropriately shape the individual’s attitude toward reducing FLW are of great importance. In addition to global campaigns, such as the UN and FAO’s “Global Initiative on Food Loss and Waste Reduction”, more country-level campaigns need to be pursued.

Cooking Process and Method, Storage in Household, Over-Cooking

If households do not properly determine the point of purchase and purchase amount of raw materials depending on when and how much cooking is done in the household, food waste may occur. In addition, the amount of food waste generated varies depending on which cooking method is selected. If households do not store raw materials properly before cooking, this also causes food waste. Excessive cooking in the household causes food waste, but the type of service provided in the foodservice industry, which provides an excessive amount of food such as a buffet, also causes food waste.